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American English Phonics: General Guidelines

Numerous clients have asked us how to know how to pronounce words in English because English spelling is so crazy! Yes, English is a mess; due to words "borrowed" from other languages and natural (but inconsistent) changes to spelling and pronunciation over time, English is a difficult language to spell and pronounce (see "The Labyrinth of English Spelling and Pronunciation" for a quick history). We've compiled the guidelines below to help you navigate the labyrinth that is English spelling!
1. Sometimes the rules don't work. There are many exceptions in English. See our Sound Chart for a more comprehensive list of sounds that various letters and letter combinations can make. What follows is a list of guidelines that can help to guide your pronunciation much of the time.
Consonants
2. "c" followed by "e, i or y" usually has the soft sound of "s". Examples: center, city, cymbal, lance
3. "g" followed by "e, i or y" usually has the soft sound of "j". Examples: generator, giraffe, gym, charge
4. -du- in the middle of a word is usually pronounced /dʒ/, as in education.
5. “th” at the beginning of nouns, adjectives, and verbs is usually voiceless, as in theater, thick, and think. “th” at the beginning of pronouns, demonstrative adjectives, and articles is voiced, as in the, these, that, those.
6. “th” at the end of nouns is usually voiceless, as in bath, teeth, cloth. “th” + “e” at the end of verbs is usually voiced, as in seethe, teethe, writhe.
7. “b” after “m” is usually silent, as in bomb, lamb, plumber. Exception: number. “b” before “t” is usually silent, as in debt, subtle, doubt.
8. "s" can be pronounced /s/ or /z/.
9. /t/ is commonly replaced by a glottal stop when a) the next syllable or word begins with a consonant sound, or b) "t" is at the end of a sentence. A glottal stop is produced by stopping airflow in the vocal tract. Examples: last month, hot pepper, did you see that?
10. "t" can also sound like /d/. When "t" or "tt" are between two vowel sounds, and stress comes before the "t's," they usually sound like a "d". For example, water, daughter, letter, liter, bottle, computer. "t" or "tt" can also sound like a "d" when they come at the end of a word and are followed by a vowel. For example, what a shame, light a match, put it out.
11. "tu" in English sometimes makes the "ch" sound /tʃ/. Generally speaking, when "tu" is at the beginning of a word (e.g., Tuesday), after "s" (e.g., student), or at the start of a stressed syllable (e.g., return), you'll hear the true "t" sound. However, in most other instances, you'll hear the "ch" sound (e.g., situation, adventure, culture, virtual).
3. "g" followed by "e, i or y" usually has the soft sound of "j". Examples: generator, giraffe, gym, charge
4. -du- in the middle of a word is usually pronounced /dʒ/, as in education.
5. “th” at the beginning of nouns, adjectives, and verbs is usually voiceless, as in theater, thick, and think. “th” at the beginning of pronouns, demonstrative adjectives, and articles is voiced, as in the, these, that, those.
6. “th” at the end of nouns is usually voiceless, as in bath, teeth, cloth. “th” + “e” at the end of verbs is usually voiced, as in seethe, teethe, writhe.
7. “b” after “m” is usually silent, as in bomb, lamb, plumber. Exception: number. “b” before “t” is usually silent, as in debt, subtle, doubt.
8. "s" can be pronounced /s/ or /z/.
- When "s" is at the start of a word, it is usually pronounced as /s/, such as station, sound, and snake.
- When "s" is at the end of a word and is part of its root, then it is usually prounced as "s," such as business, plus, and caress.
- "S" is usually pronounced as /z/ in the middle of a word when it is between two vowels, such as nose, laser, and position.
- It's also pronounced as a /z/ in the suffix, "-ism," such as collectivism.
- When final "s" denotes a plural noun or a third-person verb in present tense, special rules apply. See Rule #21 below.
9. /t/ is commonly replaced by a glottal stop when a) the next syllable or word begins with a consonant sound, or b) "t" is at the end of a sentence. A glottal stop is produced by stopping airflow in the vocal tract. Examples: last month, hot pepper, did you see that?
10. "t" can also sound like /d/. When "t" or "tt" are between two vowel sounds, and stress comes before the "t's," they usually sound like a "d". For example, water, daughter, letter, liter, bottle, computer. "t" or "tt" can also sound like a "d" when they come at the end of a word and are followed by a vowel. For example, what a shame, light a match, put it out.
11. "tu" in English sometimes makes the "ch" sound /tʃ/. Generally speaking, when "tu" is at the beginning of a word (e.g., Tuesday), after "s" (e.g., student), or at the start of a stressed syllable (e.g., return), you'll hear the true "t" sound. However, in most other instances, you'll hear the "ch" sound (e.g., situation, adventure, culture, virtual).
Vowels
12. When a syllable ends in a consonant and has only one vowel, that vowel is often short. Examples: bas-ket, net, kid, cot, luck-y. Except: “i” and “o” before two consonants are usually long, as in kind, sold.
13. When a syllable ends in a silent "e", the silent "e" often signals that the vowel in front of it is long. Examples: cake, gene, line, tone, amuse. Exceptions include several (but not all) words that end in “v;” final “e” here may not affect pronunciation of the preceding vowel, as in have and glove.
14. When a syllable has two vowels together, the first vowel is usually long and the second is silent. Examples: loan, main, beat, boar. NOTE: Sometimes diphthongs don't follow this rule; in a diphthong, the vowels blend together to create a single new sound. Examples of such words include height, coin, and heart.
15. When a syllable ends in one vowel, that vowel is usually long. Examples: go, a-gent, e-vil, i-tem, tu-lip.
16. Long “u” may be pronounced /ju/ or /u/. The /j/ is often dropped after /d, n, s, t, θ, z, dʒ, l, r, ʃ, tʃ, ʒ/, as in duke and tune. The /j/ is NOT dropped after /b, f, g, h, k, m, p, v/, as in fume and puny.
17. Another important point to remember is that vowels in unstressed syllables in American English often take the schwa sound (/ə/), as in lemon, California, delivery
13. When a syllable ends in a silent "e", the silent "e" often signals that the vowel in front of it is long. Examples: cake, gene, line, tone, amuse. Exceptions include several (but not all) words that end in “v;” final “e” here may not affect pronunciation of the preceding vowel, as in have and glove.
14. When a syllable has two vowels together, the first vowel is usually long and the second is silent. Examples: loan, main, beat, boar. NOTE: Sometimes diphthongs don't follow this rule; in a diphthong, the vowels blend together to create a single new sound. Examples of such words include height, coin, and heart.
15. When a syllable ends in one vowel, that vowel is usually long. Examples: go, a-gent, e-vil, i-tem, tu-lip.
16. Long “u” may be pronounced /ju/ or /u/. The /j/ is often dropped after /d, n, s, t, θ, z, dʒ, l, r, ʃ, tʃ, ʒ/, as in duke and tune. The /j/ is NOT dropped after /b, f, g, h, k, m, p, v/, as in fume and puny.
17. Another important point to remember is that vowels in unstressed syllables in American English often take the schwa sound (/ə/), as in lemon, California, delivery
Suffixes
18. -ti-, -ci-, -ssi-, and -ssu- in suffixes are pronounced “sh,” as in motion, social, impression, and pressure.
19. -si- and -su- in suffixes are usually pronounced /ʒ/, as in decision and measure.
20. In the past tense of regular verbs, the “ed” ending sounds like /d/ when the sound before it is voiced, as in climbed, listened, copied. The “ed” ending sounds like /t/ when the sound before it is voiceless, as in washed, cooked, laughed. Exceptions include words ending in the /t/ or /d/ sounds, in which the “ed” endings sound like /ɪd/, as in pasted, reminded, wanted, needed.
21. In the third person present of verbs or in the plural form of nouns, the “s” ending sounds like /z/ when the sound before it is voiced, as in chairs, climbs, balls. The “s” ending sounds like /s/ when the sound before it is voiceless, as in cooks, rats, laughs. Exceptions include words ending in /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/, in which the “s” endings sound like /ɪz/, as in bosses, roses, brushes, garages, churches, and edges.
22. The "-sion" suffix is likely to be pronounced with a ”ch” sound /tʃ/ when it is preceded by “n,” as in mansion, tension, pension. It is likely to take the 'zh’ sound /ʒ/ when preceded by ”r” or a vowel sound, as in fusion, vision, version. In most other circumstances (most commonly ‘s’ or ‘l’), the 'sh’ sound /ʃ/ is the more likely pronunciation, as in mission, passion, propulsion.
19. -si- and -su- in suffixes are usually pronounced /ʒ/, as in decision and measure.
20. In the past tense of regular verbs, the “ed” ending sounds like /d/ when the sound before it is voiced, as in climbed, listened, copied. The “ed” ending sounds like /t/ when the sound before it is voiceless, as in washed, cooked, laughed. Exceptions include words ending in the /t/ or /d/ sounds, in which the “ed” endings sound like /ɪd/, as in pasted, reminded, wanted, needed.
21. In the third person present of verbs or in the plural form of nouns, the “s” ending sounds like /z/ when the sound before it is voiced, as in chairs, climbs, balls. The “s” ending sounds like /s/ when the sound before it is voiceless, as in cooks, rats, laughs. Exceptions include words ending in /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/, in which the “s” endings sound like /ɪz/, as in bosses, roses, brushes, garages, churches, and edges.
22. The "-sion" suffix is likely to be pronounced with a ”ch” sound /tʃ/ when it is preceded by “n,” as in mansion, tension, pension. It is likely to take the 'zh’ sound /ʒ/ when preceded by ”r” or a vowel sound, as in fusion, vision, version. In most other circumstances (most commonly ‘s’ or ‘l’), the 'sh’ sound /ʃ/ is the more likely pronunciation, as in mission, passion, propulsion.
Sources
- http://english.glendale.cc.ca.us/phonics.rules.html (Dennis Doyle)
- Well Said (Linda Grant)
- Focus on Pronunciation 3 (Linda Lane)
- teflpedia.com